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It is a pre-print excerpt from Decolonizing Politics and Theories from the Abya Yala (forthcoming 2022, E-Worldwide Relations).
Every nation interprets the worth of every good from a special axiological scheme of preconceptions. That is the rationale why the ethical assumptions of every nation battle within the try to achieve a world settlement to pursue environmental justice. It turns into troublesome to coordinate an axiological hierarchy that prioritizes environmental items over financial items. The denial of this precedence arises from the idea that ‘man’ and ‘nature’ are two reverse ideas. The Ecuadorian economist Alberto Acosta (2010) factors out that the supposed antagonism between human beings and Nature ‘is the start line to know the conquest and colonization of America, which crystallized cruel exploitation of pure assets’ (17; my translation). In contrast, within the Quechua custom, in addition to in different Indigenous traditions, we discover a relational idea of Nature.
Though the Quechua idea of sumak kawsay is comparatively latest, it is usually deeply rooted in a conception of the human being in everlasting relationship with Nature. The overall that means of this idea is said to dwelling in concord with Nature and group (Hidalgo, Arias, and Ávila 2014, 29–73). The axiological battle between environmental items and financial items is demolished, as a result of each are a part of the construction of ‘good dwelling’ or ‘life in fullness’. International locations like Ecuador or Bolivia have included this idea of their new political constitutions (Asamblea Constituyente de Ecuador 2008; Asamblea Constituyente de Bolivia 2009). Nonetheless, their very own ethical assumptions typically present robust colonial affect.
That are the ethical foundations that might maintain a world coverage in an effort to pursue environmental justice? This philosophical query is hidden within the background of the current analysis, however it’s not meant to be answered in its entirety. Since there are innumerable methods to reply that query, this chapter limits it to a selected case: may the Quechua idea sumak kawsay be one among these ethical foundations? The reply (speculation) that’s argued is affirmative and relies on Latin American authors similar to: Eduardo Gudynas, Enrique Dussel, Alberto Acosta, Yuri Guandinango, Verónica Andino, Ana María Larrea and Salvador Schavelzon. The tactic used to reply this query is the important analectic, structured by Dussel in his effort to discover a decolonial methodology. In keeping with this methodology, the target of this analysis is to dialogue concerning the Quechua idea sumak kawsay throughout the alterity of various ethical foundations for worldwide environmental insurance policies, such because the idea of growth.
Dussel’s important analectic methodology
The Mexican thinker Enrique Dussel perceives the try to formulate a decolonial philosophy with Eurocentric strategies as a setback. That’s the reason he sees the need of a brand new methodology primarily based on the important examine of the Hegelian dialectics and the Aristotelian methodology of analogy. To suppose that Dussel’s methodology is then Aristotelian-Hegelian can be a complete misinterpretation. Quite the opposite, the analectic methodology is born as a criticism of different strategies and stands by itself deserves.
In Método para una filosofía de la liberación [Method for a philosophy of liberation], Dussel (1974) introduces the analectic second by clarifying the idea of alterity: ‘the opposite, for us, is Latin America with respect to the European totality; it’s the poor and oppressed Latin American individuals with respect to the dominating however dependent oligarchies’ (181–182; my translation). Dussel’s different isn’t an absolute alterity as Levinas describes the opposite’s face. In response to the Mexican thinker, the totality is univocal; the univocity is id. Then, the totality is against alterity.
The analectic methodology begins with the popularity of the opposite as free, as past the system of totality; subsequently begins from the revelation of the opposite and, trusting in his phrase, works, serves, creates (Dussel 1974, 182). Religion within the different’s phrase, an anthropological religion, is the precondition of this analectic second.
In response to Dussel (1974), the dialectical methodology is the dominating enlargement of the totality from itself; the passage from efficiency to the act of the identical (182). After this criticism, he presents an artificial definition of the analectic methodology, that’s: ‘the passage to the truthful progress of the totality from the opposite and to “serve” (the opposite) creatively’ (182; my translation). The important analectic methodology entails an train of discovering similarities within the potentialities of polysemy, as he later explains in a category on this methodology (Dussel 2016).
The described methodology guides the targets of the current chapter. As said above, this analysis goals to dialogue concerning the Quechua idea sumak kawsay throughout the alterity of various ethical foundations for worldwide environmental insurance policies. In an effort to obtain this normal goal, it’s essential to undergo a important step and an analectic second.
The primary particular goal issues the important stage: the aim is to query the ethical assumptions of the idea growth as the muse of worldwide insurance policies. The rationale why it’s essential to query this idea lies in its colonial affect and its dangerous penalties for the atmosphere. Moreover, many of the talked about Latin American authors oppose the idea of growth to the decolonial different of sumak kawsay. The second particular goal issues the analectic stage, begin from the phrase of the opposite: the proposal is to know the polysemy of the idea in Quechua sumak kawsay as a doable ethical basis for environmental insurance policies. The levels of the analectic methodology will culminate in what Dussel calls thefair progress of the totality from the opposite and to serve (the opposite) creatively. Subsequently, the important examine of the idea of growth will convey options primarily based on completely different ethical assumptions in an effort to scale back the environmental affect.
It’s essential to make clear that this chapter doesn’t try to investigate Abya Yala’s environmental insurance policies normally. Its method doesn’t belong to the world of political science or worldwide regulation. The reflection intends to be philosophical and presents some potentialities of understanding quite than concrete realities. This analysis is proscribed to the axiological and ethical scope of latest constitutional proposals from two particular nations: Ecuador and Bolivia. The examine of the idea of sumak kawsay linked to the relational Andean worldview goals to query the economy-focused conception of Nature. Because of this, it’s carried out from the attitude of a important take a look at standard growth. That’s the reason the time period Abya Yala is used to refer Latin America, as a result of it means ‘Mature Land’, in line with the historic Kuna Indigenous group (Carrera and Ruiz 2016, 12). Given the maturity of this land, it doesn’t make sense to place right here the underdevelopment label.
Essential description of the idea ‘growth’
The World Forest Watch’s ‘World forest map and tree cowl change information’(2020) reveals that Bolivia ranks fourth among the many nations with the best lack of major forests. An etiological examine of deforestation on this nation, between 2000 and 2010, remarks the three essential direct causes: livestock in sown pastures, mechanized agriculture and small-scale agriculture (Müller et al. 2014, 20). From that decade to the current, the causes stay the identical. These have solely change into stronger and stronger. Regardless of the immense meals manufacturing at the price of the destruction of major forests, 15.5% of the inhabitants of this similar nation is undernourished (FAO et al. 2020, 8). This unlucky irony stems from the hope of financial progress primarily based on the export of uncooked supplies.
In response to Alberto Acosta (2010), from the conquest and colonization of America ‘an extractivist scheme was cast to export Nature from the colonies primarily based on the capital accumulation calls for of the metropolises’ (17; my translation). The contradiction between precarious meals safety and unbridled meals manufacturing in Bolivia is the results of an financial scheme based 5 centuries in the past within the midst of colonial violence.
As a colonial residue, growing nations conceive growth as blind financial progress with out many environmental concerns. Brazil, the nation with the best lack of major forests (World Forest Watch 2020), carries the slogan of Order and progress on its flag. It’s below dialogue whether or not Brazil needs to be thought of a growing nation or not. This dialogue considers financial progress greater than its ranges of inequality, excessive poverty, and environmental affect.
Amartya Sen (2000) describes as ‘slim views of growth those that establish growth with the expansion of gross nationwide product, or with the rise in private incomes, or with industrialization, or with technological advance, or with social modernization’ (3). These slim views had their penalties on the established order of an unfair and anthropocentric construction. In response to the Ecuadorian anthropologist Ana María Larrea (2010), the idea of growth was constructed from a colonialist perspective and is now in disaster as a result of poor outcomes it has generated all through the world (15; my translation). These poor outcomes embrace environmental affect, starvation, inequality, and so forth. Most likely, due to these penalties, any such growth can’t be sustained all through time. This tempo of indefinite progress essentially implies a collapse as a result of traits of the pure world, therefore the necessity to mix the idea of growth with sustainability.
Though for Wolfgang Sachs (1999) the sustainable growth mixture is an oxymoron, no less than its intention offers us a bit hope. The Uruguayan researcher Eduardo Gudynas (2003) distinguishes between conventional growth and sustainable growth, criticizing the primary one with out ceasing to debate the second.
The proposal is to criticize the idea of growth however to not destroy it radically. It will be Manichean to suppose that the biased conception of growth is accountable for all of the ills that have an effect on the atmosphere and the human group. Moreover, it could be unfair to disregard the virtues that this mannequin has offered on the potential of structuring massive populations, granting sure meals safety to a relative majority. Nonetheless, it could even be naive to suppose that standard growth truly improves our state of affairs in some respects with out making it worse in others. As well as, it improves the state of affairs of some beings making it worse for others.
In response to Gudynas and Acosta (2011), within the Nineteen Forties, the idea of growth outlined as a progressive linearity or as the other of underdevelopment started to be formalized (73). Nevertheless, the authors level out that in actuality ‘what’s noticed on the planet is a generalized “unhealthy growth”, current even in nations thought of as developed’ (Gudynas and Acosta 2011, 73; my translation). The connection between this unhealthy growth and the gradual destruction of the atmosphere is decisive. The idea of blind progressive linearity causes progressive injury as nicely. One of these ethical assumption, the place the best good is financial worth, interrupts worldwide treaties aimed toward defending the atmosphere. Essentially the most stunning factor about this assumption is its means to disregard the irreducible relationship between economics and environmental justice.
One of many essential notions connected to the progressive destruction of the pure wealth of the growing nations is extractivism. Gudynas (2015) defines this idea as ‘a sort of extraction of pure assets, in massive quantity or excessive depth, that are primarily oriented to be exported as uncooked supplies with none processing or with minimal processing’ (13; my translation). One of these export condemns the Abya Yala nations to the bottom revenue in financial phrases and the best loss in environmental phrases. Furthermore, in line with the aforementioned examine, third technology extractivisms have been the reason for most social conflicts in Latin America (Gudynas 2015, 24). The Uruguayan researcher not solely denounces the environmental penalties of extractivism, but additionally its social issues and ethical conflicts.
Gudynas dedicates an entire part to ethics and values within the conclusions of his e-book Extractivismos: ecología, economía y política de un modo de entender el desarrollo y la Naturaleza [Extractivisms: ecology, economics and politics from a way of understanding development and Nature](2015). On this part, he factors out that there’s an axiological part that cuts throughout all ranges: ‘from the cultural bases of growth methods to extractivist implementations with all their environmental, financial, political and social implications’ (433; my translation). In response to Gudynas, this part is the results of an anthropocentric ethic the place ‘values are solely assigned by human beings, and so they prevail straight linked to human advantages and wishes’ (434). The current chapter considers that not even human advantages and wishes are prioritized, for the reason that environmental affect has monumental unfavourable penalties on the well-being of essentially the most weak sectors of the human group. What is usually prioritized is a break up financial worth, briefly separated from its speedy materials worth.
Gudynas (2015) provides that the ‘restoration of different values in nature, and specifically when its personal rights are acknowledged, isn’t solely an antidote to extractivism, however can also be a substitute for that anthropocentric ethic’ (434; my translation). The ethical assumptions of conventional growth are decided by the conception of ‘nature’.
Within the Nineteen Eighties, a brand new flip within the conceptions of nature started with a perspective originated within the economic system: ‘from completely different beginning factors and conceptual choices, a number of authors started to contemplate nature as a type of capital’ (Gudynas 2003, 23; my translation). A pattern of any such economy-focused conception is the broadly used expression of pure assets. This explains the truth that nations like Bolivia or Brazil see deforestation as a type of financial progress. Developmental extractivism condemns these nations to their very own put on and tear. Worldwide logic forces them to decide on this type of economic system, as a result of the ethical basis of this logic lies within the polysemic worth of progress.
As a result of polysemy of the idea of growth or progress, it may be used for very completely different functions, even opposite to one another. A logical consequence of conceiving nature as a type of capital is the interpretation of financial progress because the exploitation of this capital. In contrast, more moderen notions similar to sustainability embrace preserving the atmosphere as a part of growth. Because of this, whether it is interpreted within the earlier sense, the time period sustainable growth itself could sound contradictory.
Nevertheless, even within the sustainability of a growth extra courteous with nature there are additionally ethical assumptions that Gudynas would name anthropocentric. Moreover, Sachs’s critique of the idea of sustainable growth reveals that this try to protect the atmosphere is finally an try to protect the tempo of financial progress.
In an article entitled ‘Los derechos de la naturaleza en serio: respuestas y aportes desde la ecología política [The rights of Nature seriously: responses and contributions from political ecology]’ (2011), Gudynas raises the next argument: ‘if the rights of nature are taken significantly, their very own values seem, but additionally the chains of an solely financial valuation are damaged’ (255; my translation). What the current chapter proposes is a decolonizing effort to take significantly the rights of nature.
Sumak kawsay as a doable ethical basis for environmental insurance policies
The economy-focused conception of nature leads the paradigm of standard growth in Latin American nations. Nonetheless, cultures that bestow on nature an immense and even sacred worth nonetheless inhabit many of those nations. The circumstances that match the aim of this chapter are Bolivia and Ecuador.
Though in Bolivia and Ecuador there are licensed opinions that promote extractivism, there’s additionally an try to discover within the Andean custom options to the dominant conception of nature. Given the oral character of this custom, there’s a risk that the idea of sumak kawsay could also be truly a brand new building. Yuri Guandinango (2013) factors out that this notion ‘isn’t express in Indigenous communities; since many of the communities of the Ecuadorian highlands are traversed by historic processes which have reconfigured the experiential practices; such is the case of agroecological and sociocultural methods’ (14; my translation). Nonetheless, most certainly this notion is in line with a relational conception of nature that’s deeply rooted in an Indigenous worldview.
Pablo Mamani (2011, as cited in Schavelzon 2015) lists the phrases that might approximate a definition or translation of the idea of sumak kawsay: ‘richness of life’; ‘understanding learn how to stay life’; ‘perspective’; ‘be filled with nice coronary heart’; and even ‘good die’. In Bolivia, the state assumes as a precept the Aymara model of fine dwelling: sumaj qamaña. Javier Medina (2001) interprets it to the next phrases: ‘good life’, ‘life high quality’, ‘wellbeing’, ‘life-style’, ‘good dwelling’, ‘happiness’, ‘pleasure’, ‘felicity’ (26). Xavier Albó (2011) proposes different definitions for qamaña: ‘stay’, ‘dwell’, ‘relaxation’, ‘shelter’ and ‘handle others’. Consequently, in line with Albó, the interpretation of sumaj qamaña is: ‘good dwelling collectively or dwelling nicely collectively’. Concerning the polysemy of those phrases in Quechua and Aymara, Salvador Schavelzon (2015) says: ‘the issue in defining a signifier tells us concerning the starting of a journey the place conceptions of life and completely different worlds are translated and delimited for the development of political ideas’ (181; my translation). Nevertheless, because of this phenomenon, it’s doable to use Dussel’s analectic methodology, the place completely different horizons dialogue as a consequence of a risk of analogy in polysemy.
The brand new constitutions of Ecuador and Bolivia introduce the ideas of sumak kawsay and sumaj qamaña as a political mission. Article 275 of Constitución de la República de Ecuador (2008) factors out: ‘The event regime is the organized, sustainable and dynamic set of financial, political, socio-cultural and environmental methods, which assure the belief of the great dwelling, from sumak kawsay’ (135; my translation). Since, in its structure, Ecuador is offered as a republic and never as a plurinational state, the precept of sumak kawsay is utilized as a generality. Within the Bolivian case, sumaj qamaña is an ethical-moral precept amongst various ideas from different nations of the state. Article 8 of the Second Chapter of Constitución Política del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (2009; my translation) establishes: ‘The State assumes and promotes as ethical-moral ideas of plural society: ama qhilla, ama llulla, ama sua (don’t be lazy, don’t be a liar, don’t be a thief), suma qamaña (good dwelling), ñandereko (harmonious life), teko kavi (good life), ivi maraei (land with out evil) and qhapaj ñan (noble means or life)’. The ideas extracted from the Guaraní custom don’t conflict with the relational notion of nature attribute of the sumak kawsay. Particularly ñandereko and teko kavi have a formidable resemblance to the Andean ideas of fine life. Though it could be silly to confuse these notions as if that they had the identical meanings and have been originated in the identical traditions, they may all be offered as options to standard financial growth.
Yuri Guadinango (2013) separates the teachers who clarify the discourse of fine dwelling from completely different views into three teams in line with their positions: ‘the followers of group A promote good dwelling as a substitute for growth; these in group B place good dwelling according to twenty first century socialism; and people in group C perceive good dwelling as a part of growth theories’ (19; my translation). This chapter belongs particularly to the place of group A, as a result of group C means that the idea of sumak kawsay could change into a reinforcement of the dominant paradigm of conventional growth. Nevertheless, there are causes to current this idea as a really completely different different as a consequence of its risk of founding environmental insurance policies: (1) the Andean relational worldview; (2) the criticism of the logic of capital accumulation; (3) the popularity of intrinsic values in nature.
What does the notion of Andean relational worldview imply? This primary cause is linked to what Gudynas and Acosta (2011) referred to as a ‘house occupied by the concepts encompassed below the label of “Good Residing”’ (76; my translation). These ‘concepts originated in conventional Andean information, targeted on the well-being of individuals and defenders of one other sort of relationship with the atmosphere, rapidly managed to affect the talk on growth, and change into new options to it’ (Gudynas and Acosta 2011, 76; my translation). The worldview that issues the idea of Good Residing doesn’t conceive of the human being as a topic separated from the item so-called nature. The human being is just one a part of the chakana, the ‘bridge on the prime’, which unites nature, the religious world, the human group and the ancestors (Flores Rengifo 2018). Though sumak kawsay isn’t a purely ancestral idea and is blended with very latest political initiatives, the coherence between this idea and the relational construction of the Andean conventional conception of nature is infamous. Within the Andean relational worldview, we’re not the masters and antagonists of nature, however solely part of the relation between all beings which are united by the chakana. Good Residing isn’t mere human well-being, however quite a sure concord of complementarity between all beings.
It’s exactly this worldview that challenges growth to decentralize its anthropocentric method. As Verónica Andino (2010) asserts, ‘the problem posed by the Sumak Kawsay paradigm is to consciously dislodge the logic of capital accumulation, with its corollary within the idea of growth, from the central place it occupied within the imaginary of the Ecuadorians of what a greater society represents’ (101; my translation). That is the aforementioned second cause: the criticism of the logic of capital accumulation. If the middle is not the human being however the chakana, then the economy-focused logic loses its that means. With the ethical foundations displaced, the edifice of standard growth collapses and another risk of grounding environmental insurance policies emerges.
Why environmental insurance policies particularly? That is what the third cause is aimed toward: the popularity of intrinsic values in nature. The 2 earlier causes converge on this one. The decentralization of worth permits for ethical diversification. The next assertion is the philosophical criticism of Gudynas (2015): ‘dissolution of ethics is what makes tolerable the repeated violation of the rights of individuals and of nature as a method of extractionist imposition’ (434; my translation). Subsequently, a reconstruction of an ethic that takes significantly the rights of nature is a sine qua non situation for the proposal of inexperienced insurance policies. Gudynas provides: ‘Because of this, conceptions similar to Good Residing or the rights of nature are undoubtedly options, however they change into substantial when selling moral adjustments that open the doorways to different valuations, thus producing penalties on many ranges’ (Gudynas 2015, 434; my translation). These penalties are straight associated to a mitigation of our environmental affect.
The three causes offered help the understanding of sumak kawsay in its place risk of ethical basis of environmental insurance policies. The polysemy of this time period is a fertile subject for dialogue. That is the rationale why this idea represents a decolonial level the place the nationwide horizon of Ecuador and Bolivia can meet the worldwide horizon of the remainder of Abya Yala. Environmental insurance policies are inevitably worldwide insurance policies as a result of even home provisions can have an effect on the remainder of the world. Subsequently, it’s essential to search for completely different ideas similar to sumak kawsay that may characterize extra nations of their polysemy than these which are represented by the univocal idea of standard growth.
Conclusions
Is the Quechua idea sumak kawsay one of many doable ethical foundations that might maintain a world coverage in an effort to pursue environmental justice? All through this chapter, an affirmative reply has been argued. In addition to different notions of the varied cultures of Abya Yala, the idea of sumak kawsay is a fertile ethical basis for the pursuit and consolidation of worldwide insurance policies that promote environmental justice.
The argumentation has gone by way of two methodological moments to achieve that conclusion. Step one was a important examine: the idea of standard developmentwas questioned for its penalties on the atmosphere. The studying of Gudynas, Acosta and Larrea revealed that this idea relies on the colonial financial system consolidated later by industrial manufacturing calls for. The second methodological second was analectic: the polysemy of the idea in Quechua sumak kawsay was understood as a risk of ethical basis for inexperienced insurance policies. ‘Life in fullness’is conditioned by concord with nature and group. Which means the financial values that concern the satisfaction of the human wants don’t contradict the environmental values. The rationale lies within the relational conception of nature. This idea may represent a decolonial ethical basis for inexperienced insurance policies as a result of it supplies options to standard growth.
Sumak kawsay isn’t a magical idea that can mechanically resolve all of the environmental challenges of our time, however it may very well be an ethical basis different to the one which conceives nature solely primarily based on financial standards. This basis constitutes an axiological system that might morally base worldwide agreements in an effort to protect the atmosphere in Abya Yala. At the very least there’s already a degree in widespread between Ecuador and Bolivia, which Dussel would name analectic.
When the nationwide decision-making threatens environmental justice, worldwide concerns should begin from the dialogue of ethical assumptions in direction of the seek for options, completely different from the conceptual construction that led to the dangerous penalties. The premise that helps this conclusion is that even inside a rustic that causes and suffers an environmental affect, there could also be axiological hierarchies in battle, additionally conditioned by the dominant paradigm on a world scale.
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