Since Harry Markowitz developed trendy portfolio principle’s mean-variance optimization (MVO), monetary advisors and wealth managers have been confronted with a vital query: What’s the relative significance of threat tolerance (the investor’s perspective towards threat) in comparison with threat capability (the investor’s potential to endure unfavourable outcomes)?
I have to confess that I’ve been perplexed by this query for many years. My frequent co-author, Paul Kaplan, and I imagine we have now solved this 50+ 12 months conundrum utilizing an expanded MVO optimization mannequin referred to as internet price optimization (NWO).
I plan to debate our findings on my panel at CFA Institute LIVE 2025 in Chicago in Might.
How did we get right here?
The objective (goal operate) of mean-variance optimization is to maximise the anticipated return of a portfolio, minus a personalised penalty for the anticipated threat (variance) of the portfolio. Personalised penalty is the investor’s threat tolerance coefficient multiplied by the variance of the portfolio.
In MVO, the “threat tolerance” coefficient is a single quantity reflecting the speed at which the investor is prepared to commerce off extra threat in pursuit of extra anticipated return. Understanding the investor’s threat tolerance coefficient means that you can clear up for the corresponding MVO environment friendly portfolio.
Within the economics literature and the works of Nobel Prize winners like Paul Samuelson, threat tolerance is clearly associated to the investor’s perspective towards threat, not threat capability.
Advisors continuously have a deep understanding of their shoppers’ conditions. This would possibly embrace info on extra accounts, spousal property, compensation info, mortgage funds, and many others. Some shoppers could also be very comfy with threat, however with little capability for hostile outcomes given their circumstances. Whereas different shoppers are extraordinarily uncomfortable with threat however can tolerate hostile outcomes with little influence on their monetary well-being. Advisors discover themselves navigating what has been a extremely subjective threat tolerance (perspective) versus threat capability conundrum.
Two Approaches to Danger Capability
Pragmatically, there have been two approaches that explicitly deal with threat capability.
The primary strategy is a typical characteristic of the “scoring” part of threat tolerance questionnaires. When scoring the responses to a threat tolerance questionnaire, there are continuously two scores: a threat tolerance rating and a time horizon rating. The time horizon rating serves as a crude proxy for the investor’s capability to tackle threat that limits which portfolios are deemed appropriate.
The second strategy might be much less recognized to practitioners however prevalent within the practitioner-oriented literature. This strategy is finest represented by the “discretionary wealth speculation” primarily put forth by Jarrod Willcox.[1] In a majority of these approaches, the investor’s perspective towards threat is discounted or ignored, and monetary ratios just like the ratio of assets-to-liabilities are used as the first issue to estimate a so-called “threat tolerance coefficient. I exploit quotes to differentiate this from the financial definition of threat tolerance as an perspective.
Web Value Optimization (NWO)
In our 2024 CFA Institute Analysis Basis e-book, “Lifetime Monetary Recommendation,” Kaplan and I put forth NWO. It’s a vital extension of MVO. NWO consists of all the investor’s property and labilities within the optimization, particularly human capital, and it optimizes the investor’s holistic financial steadiness sheet.
An investor’s financial steadiness sheet consists of all his or her property — dwelling, land, collectables, and all monetary property. Most significantly, the financial steadiness sheet consists of the capitalized worth of the investor’s lifetime of earnings — human capital. For many individuals, the mortality weighted internet current worth of all future labor revenue, together with deferred labor revenue within the type of outlined advantages and social safety, is their single largest asset.
The lifetime of money flows stemming from human capital is continuously harking back to the money flows you’ll obtain from a big, inflation-linked, long-duration bond. Others have much less regular human capital which may resemble a inventory/bond combine.
On the right-side of an financial steadiness sheet, all of us have ongoing bills, resembling hire, a mortgage, insurance coverage, medical prices, and meals. Whereas these will not be authorized liabilities, these bills are sometimes inescapable. Collectively, their capitalized values type what we consider because the investor’s nondiscretionary consumption legal responsibility.
Simply as a steadiness sheet is a crucial indicator of a company’s monetary well being, a holistic particular person financial steadiness sheet is a wonderful indicator of the investor’s total monetary well being and capability for taking up threat. The distinction between the full worth of all property and all liabilities is internet price. Therefore the time period internet price optimization or NWO.
NWO consists of all the key financial steadiness sheet entries. Nontradable entries — the investor’s human capital and nondiscretionary consumption legal responsibility — are included within the optimization, though the optimizer can not change the online current worth of both. These nontradeable property are modeled as portfolios of asset lessons, which allow us to derive correct market-based low cost charges and perceive how they work together with the remainder of the steadiness sheet.
Think about a 45-year outdated pharmaceutical scientist with a base wage of $200,000, adjusted annually for inflation, who receives $100,000 nominal restricted inventory items with a five-year vesting schedule who additionally expects to obtain roughly $25,000 per 12 months from social safety beginning at age 65. One may mannequin this particular person’s human capital as almost 2/3rds long-duration-inflation-adjusted company bonds with a period equivalent to the 20 years of money flows, and almost 1/3rd mid-cap shares (reflecting the dimensions of the corporate).
You might refine the 1/3rd mid-cap shares by modeling them primarily based on the pharmaceutical sector and even utilizing the particular inventory in query. The present internet current worth of social safety isn’t price that a lot at this time, however it too needs to be accounted for correctly. The anticipated returns on every type the idea for a weighted common price of capital for calculating the worth of the scientist’s human capital.
The capitalized worth of the investor’s nondiscretionary consumption legal responsibility, which is considerably like issuing a long-duration-inflation-linked bond with outgoing coupon funds, is included as a nontradable unfavourable holding within the optimization.
Then within the presence of nontradable property and liabilities NWO determines the optimum asset allocation for the investor’s tradable property — an optimization that totally accounts for the investor’s potential to tackle threat.
Shifting via time life occurs. The shopper may very well be fired, the worth of inventory may go up/down, inflation may enhance/lower, begin a household, or an uninsured dwelling on the coast may very well be washed away, and many others. Critically, as the worth of the particular person’s property relative to the worth of liabilities evolves, the particular person’s monetary well being and skill to tackle threat evolve. In contrast to asset-only MVO, NWO totally captures the investor’s potential to tackle threat.
In a February 2025 Monetary Planning Evaluate article, “Web Value Optimization,” Kaplan and I focus on greater than 8,000 internet price optimizations through which we diverse the investor’s human capital and the composition of the investor’s financial steadiness sheet. As Determine 1 reveals, after controlling for the investor’s threat tolerance, the quantity of fairness publicity for tradable monetary property elevated with the relative power of the investor’s financial steadiness sheet. We imagine this can be a new, however intuitive outcome.
Determine 1: Optimum Monetary Capital Fairness Stage.
Supply: Idzorek and Kaplan (2025).
In Determine 1, every dot is the typical fairness degree of economic capital from 180 internet price optimizations equivalent to totally different mixtures of human capital and threat tolerance. Because the holistic financial steadiness sheet strengthens, all else equal, it’s optimum to tackle extra threat.
Conundrum Solved
With NWO there isn’t a conundrum. We now not have to ask which is extra necessary, the shopper’s perspective towards threat or the shopper’s capability to tackle threat.
NWO means that you can use the shopper’s threat tolerance because it was supposed — to mirror the shopper’s perspective towards threat. Most significantly, NWO concurrently goes effectively past the time horizon proxy of threat capability by totally reflecting the shopper’s potential to tackle threat as captured by a holistic and evolving financial steadiness sheet.
With the development of internet price optimization, the monetary planning business ought to transfer from MVO to NWO.
References
Idzorek, Thomas M., and Paul D. Kaplan. 2024. Lifetime Monetary Recommendation: A Personalised Optimum Multi-Stage Strategy. Charlottesville, VA: Analysis Basis of CFA Institute. https://rpc.cfainstitute.org/websites/default/information/-/media/paperwork/article/rf-brief/lifetime-financial-advice.pdf
Idzorek, Thomas M., and Paul D. Kaplan. 2025. “Web Value Optimization.” Monetary Planning Evaluate 8 (1): e1200. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/cfp2.1200
Straehl, Philip U., Robert ten Brincke, and Carlos Gutierrez Mangas. 2024. “Ought to Your Inventory Portfolio Contemplate Your Profession?” Morningstar Analysis Paper, June 21.
Wilcox, Jarrod W. 2003. “Harry Markowitz and the Discretionary Wealth Speculation.” Journal of Portfolio Administration 29 (3): 58 – 65. DOI: 10.3905/jpm.2003.319884
Wilcox, Jarrod W., and Frank J. Fabozzi. 2009. “A Discretionary Wealth Strategy for Funding Coverage.” Journal of Portfolio Administration 36 (1): 46-59. DOI: 10.3905/JPM.2009.36.1.046
Wilcox, Jarrod W., Jeffrey E. Horvitz, and Dan DiBartolomeo. 2006. Funding Administration for Taxable Non-public Buyers. Charlottesville, VA: Analysis Basis of CFA Institute.
[1] Examples embrace Wilcox (2003), Wilcox, Horvitz, and di Bartolomeo (2006), and Wilcox and Fabozzi (2009).
